Editing Cambodian Genocide
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The Khmer Rouge Rule of Cambodia refers to the rule of [[Pol Pot]], [[Nuon Chea]], [[Ieng Sary]], [[Son Sen]], [[Khieu Samphan]] and the Khmer Rouge Communist party over Cambodia, which the Khmer Rouge renamed as Democratic Kampuchea. | |||
The | The four-year period cost approximately 2 million lives through the combined result of political executions, starvation, and forced labor.[1][2] Due to the large numbers, the deaths during the rule of the Khmer Rouge are often considered a genocide, and commonly known as the Cambodian Holocaust or Cambodian Genocide. The Khmer Rouge took power at the end of the Cambodian Civil War and were toppled with the invasion of Cambodia by neighbour and former ally Vietnam in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War, which left Cambodia under Vietnamese occupation for over a decade. | ||
==Politics [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=1 <u>edit</u>]]== | |||
By the April 1975 communist victory, [[Pol Pot]] and his associates occupied the most important positions in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Kampuchea <u>Communist Party of Kampuchea</u>] (CPK) and in the state hierarchies. Pol Pot was known as "Vach du Mach" or One with the Gun. He had been CPK general secretary since February 1963. His associates functioned as the party's Political Bureau, and they held a majority of the seats on the Central Committee. | |||
== | |||
By the April 1975 communist victory, [[Pol Pot]] and his associates occupied the most important positions in the [ | |||
Through the 1970s, and especially after mid-1975, the party was shaken by factional struggles. There were even armed attempts to topple Pol Pot. The resultant punitive measures were taken in 1977 and 1978 when hundreds of thousands of people, including some of the most important CPK leaders, were executed. | Through the 1970s, and especially after mid-1975, the party was shaken by factional struggles. There were even armed attempts to topple Pol Pot. The resultant punitive measures were taken in 1977 and 1978 when hundreds of thousands of people, including some of the most important CPK leaders, were executed. | ||
==Establishing the Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea== | ==Establishing the Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=2 <u>edit</u>]]== | ||
The communists abolished the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Government_of_National_Union_of_Kampuchea <u>Royal Government of National Union of Kampuchea</u>] (established in 1970). Cambodia did not have any sort of government until the proclamation of the Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea on January 5, 1976. | The communists abolished the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Government_of_National_Union_of_Kampuchea <u>Royal Government of National Union of Kampuchea</u>] (established in 1970). Cambodia did not have any sort of government until the proclamation of the Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea on January 5, 1976. | ||
The communists continued to use King [ | The communists continued to use King [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norodom_Sihanouk <u>Norodom Sihanouk</u>] as a figurehead for the government until April 2, 1976 when Sihanouk resigned as head of state. Sihanouk remained under insecure house arrest in Phnom Penh, until late in the war with Vietnam when he departed for the United States where he made Democratic Kampuchea's case before the Security Council. He eventually relocated to China. | ||
The "rights and duties of the individual" were briefly defined in Article 12. They included none of what are commonly regarded as guarantees of political human rights<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;">[''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed <u>citation needed</u>]'']</sup> except the statement that "men and women are equal in every respect." The document declared, however, that "all workers" and "all peasants" were "masters" of their factories and fields. An assertion that "there is absolutely no unemployment in Democratic Kampuchea" rings true in light of the regime's massive use of force. | The "rights and duties of the individual" were briefly defined in Article 12. They included none of what are commonly regarded as guarantees of political human rights<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;">[''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed <u>citation needed</u>]'']</sup> except the statement that "men and women are equal in every respect." The document declared, however, that "all workers" and "all peasants" were "masters" of their factories and fields. An assertion that "there is absolutely no unemployment in Democratic Kampuchea" rings true in light of the regime's massive use of force. | ||
The Constitution defined Democratic Kampuchea's [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_policy <u>foreign policy</u>] principles in Article 21, the document's longest, in terms of "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence <u>independence</u>], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace <u>peace</u>], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_country <u>neutrality</u>], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement <u>nonalignment</u>]." It pledged the country's support to anti-[ | The Constitution defined Democratic Kampuchea's [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_policy <u>foreign policy</u>] principles in Article 21, the document's longest, in terms of "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence <u>independence</u>], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace <u>peace</u>], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_country <u>neutrality</u>], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement <u>nonalignment</u>]." It pledged the country's support to anti-[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialist <u>imperialist</u>] struggles in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_World <u>Third World</u>]. In light of the regime's aggressive attacks against [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam <u>Vietnamese</u>], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand <u>Thai</u>], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laos <u>Lao</u>] territory during 1977 and 1978, the promise to "maintain close and friendly relations with all countries sharing a common border" bore little resemblance to reality. | ||
Governmental institutions were outlined very briefly in the Constitution. The legislature, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampuchean_People%27s_Representative_Assembly <u>Kampuchean People's Representative Assembly</u>] (KPRA), contained 250 members "representing workers, peasants, and other working people and the Kampuchean Revolutionary | Governmental institutions were outlined very briefly in the Constitution. The legislature, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampuchean_People%27s_Representative_Assembly <u>Kampuchean People's Representative Assembly</u>] (KPRA), contained 250 members "representing workers, peasants, and other working people and the Kampuchean Revolutionary army." One hundred and fifty KPRA seats were allocated for peasant representatives; fifty, for the armed forces; and fifty, for worker and other representatives. The legislature was to be popularly elected for a five-year term. Its [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodian_parliamentary_election,_1976 <u>first and only election</u>] was held on March 20, 1976. "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_people <u>New people</u>]" apparently were not allowed to participate. | ||
The executive branch of government also was chosen by the KPRA. It consisted of a state presidium "responsible for representing the state of Democratic Kampuchea inside and outside the country." It served for a five-year term, and its president was head of state. | The executive branch of government also was chosen by the KPRA. It consisted of a state presidium "responsible for representing the state of Democratic Kampuchea inside and outside the country." It served for a five-year term, and its president was head of state. Khieu Samphan was the only person to serve in this office, which he assumed after Sihanouk's resignation. The judicial system was composed of "people's courts," the judges for which were appointed by the KPRA, as was the executive branch. | ||
The Constitution did not mention regional or local government institutions. After assuming power, the Khmer Rouge abolished the old provinces (''khet'') and replaced them with seven zones; the Northern Zone, Northeastern Zone, Northwestern Zone, Central Zone, Eastern Zone, Western Zone, and Southwestern Zone. There were also two other regional-level units: the Kracheh Special Region Number 505 and, until 1977, the Siemreab Special Region Number 106. | The Constitution did not mention regional or local government institutions. After assuming power, the Khmer Rouge abolished the old provinces (''khet'') and replaced them with seven zones; the Northern Zone, Northeastern Zone, Northwestern Zone, Central Zone, Eastern Zone, Western Zone, and Southwestern Zone. There were also two other regional-level units: the Kracheh Special Region Number 505 and, until 1977, the Siemreab Special Region Number 106. | ||
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The damban were divided into ''srok'' (districts), ''khum'' (subdistricts), and ''phum'' (villages), the latter usually containing several hundred people. This pattern was roughly similar to that which existed under Sihanouk and the Khmer Republic, but inhabitants of the villages were organized into ''krom'' (groups) composed of ten to fifteen families. On each level, administration was directed by a three-person committee (''kanak'', or ''kena''). | The damban were divided into ''srok'' (districts), ''khum'' (subdistricts), and ''phum'' (villages), the latter usually containing several hundred people. This pattern was roughly similar to that which existed under Sihanouk and the Khmer Republic, but inhabitants of the villages were organized into ''krom'' (groups) composed of ten to fifteen families. On each level, administration was directed by a three-person committee (''kanak'', or ''kena''). | ||
CPK members occupied committee posts at higher levels. Subdistrict and village committees were often staffed by local poor peasants, and, very rarely, by "new people." Cooperatives (''sahakor''), similar in jurisdictional area to the khum, assumed local government responsibilities in some areas. | CPK members occupied committee posts at the higher levels. Subdistrict and village committees were often staffed by local poor peasants, and, very rarely, by "new people." Cooperatives (''sahakor''), similar in jurisdictional area to the khum, assumed local government responsibilities in some areas. | ||
==Societal transformation [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=3 <u>edit</u>]]== | ==Societal transformation [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=3 <u>edit</u>]]== | ||
According to Pol Pot, Cambodia was made up of four [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class <u>classes</u>]: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasants <u>peasants</u>] and workers, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourgeoisie <u>bourgeoisie</u>], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalists <u>capitalists</u>], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalists <u>feudalists</u>]. Post-revolutionary society, as defined by the 1976 Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea, consisted of workers, peasants, and "all other Kampuchean working people." No allowance was made for a transitional stage such as China's "New Democracy" in which "patriotic" landlord or bourgeois elements were permitted to play a role in socialist construction. | According to Pol Pot, Cambodia was made up of four [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class <u>classes</u>]: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasants <u>peasants</u>] and workers, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourgeoisie <u>bourgeoisie</u>], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalists <u>capitalists</u>], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalists <u>feudalists</u>]. Post-revolutionary society, as defined by the 1976 Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea, consisted of workers, peasants, and "all other Kampuchean working people." No allowance was made for a transitional stage such as China's "New Democracy" in which "patriotic" landlord or bourgeois elements were permitted to play a role in socialist construction. | ||
Sihanouk writes that in 1975 he, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khieu_Samphan <u>Khieu Samphan</u>], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khieu_Thirith <u>Khieu Thirith</u>] went to visit [ | Sihanouk writes that in 1975 he, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khieu_Samphan <u>Khieu Samphan</u>], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khieu_Thirith <u>Khieu Thirith</u>] went to visit [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_Enlai <u>Zhou Enlai</u>], who was gravely ill. Zhou warned them not to attempt to achieve communism in a single step, as China had attempted in the late 1950s with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward <u>Great Leap Forward</u>]. Khieu Samphan and Khieu Thirith "just smiled an incredulous and superior smile." Khieu Samphan and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Son_Sen <u>Son Sen</u>] later boasted to Sihanouk that "we will be the first nation to create a completely communist society without wasting time on intermediate steps." | ||
Although conditions varied from region to region, a situation that was, in part, a reflection of factional divisions that still existed within the CPK during the 1970s, the testimony of refugees reveals that the most salient social division was between the politically suspect "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_People <u>new people</u>]," those driven out of the towns after the communist victory, and the more reliable "old people", the poor and lower middle-class peasants who had remained in the countryside. Despite the ideological commitment to radical equality, CPK members and the armed forces constituted a clearly recognizable elite. | Although conditions varied from region to region, a situation that was, in part, a reflection of factional divisions that still existed within the CPK during the 1970s, the testimony of refugees reveals that the most salient social division was between the politically suspect "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_People <u>new people</u>]," those driven out of the towns after the communist victory, and the more reliable "old people", the poor and lower middle-class peasants who had remained in the countryside. Despite the ideological commitment to radical equality, CPK members and the armed forces constituted a clearly recognizable elite. | ||
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Although their revolutionary ideology was extreme, the highest ranks of the Khmer Rouge leadership had a tendency to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepotism <u>nepotism</u>] similar of the Sihanouk-era elite. Pol Pot's wife, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khieu_Ponnary <u>Khieu Ponnary</u>], was head of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Association_of_Democratic_Khmer_Women&action=edit&redlink=1 <u>Association of Democratic Khmer Women</u>] and her younger sister, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khieu_Thirith <u>Khieu Thirith</u>], served as minister of social action. These two women were considered among the half-dozen most powerful personalities in Democratic Kampuchea. Son Sen's wife, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yun_Yat <u>Yun Yat</u>], served as minister for culture, education and learning. | Although their revolutionary ideology was extreme, the highest ranks of the Khmer Rouge leadership had a tendency to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepotism <u>nepotism</u>] similar of the Sihanouk-era elite. Pol Pot's wife, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khieu_Ponnary <u>Khieu Ponnary</u>], was head of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Association_of_Democratic_Khmer_Women&action=edit&redlink=1 <u>Association of Democratic Khmer Women</u>] and her younger sister, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khieu_Thirith <u>Khieu Thirith</u>], served as minister of social action. These two women were considered among the half-dozen most powerful personalities in Democratic Kampuchea. Son Sen's wife, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yun_Yat <u>Yun Yat</u>], served as minister for culture, education and learning. | ||
Several of Pol Pot's nephews and nieces were given jobs in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. One of [ | Several of Pol Pot's nephews and nieces were given jobs in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. One of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieng_Sary <u>Ieng Sary</u>]'s daughters was appointed head of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calmette_Hospital <u>Calmette Hospital</u>] although she had not graduated from secondary school. A niece of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieng_Sary <u>Ieng Sary</u>] was given a job as English translator for [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radio_Phnom_Penh&action=edit&redlink=1 <u>Radio Phnom Penh</u>] although her fluency in the language was relative. | ||
Family ties were important, both because of the culture and because of the leadership's intense secretiveness and distrust of outsiders, especially of pro-Vietnamese communists. Different ministries, such as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Industry, were controlled and exploited by powerful Khmer Rouge families. Administering the diplomatic corps was regarded as an especially profitable fiefdom. | Family ties were important, both because of the culture and because of the leadership's intense secretiveness and distrust of outsiders, especially of pro-Vietnamese communists. Different ministries, such as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Industry, were controlled and exploited by powerful Khmer Rouge families. Administering the diplomatic corps was regarded as an especially profitable fiefdom. | ||
==Economy [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=4 <u>edit</u>]]== | ==Economy [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=4 <u>edit</u>]]== | ||
Democratic Kampuchea's economic policy was similar to, and possibly inspired by, | Democratic Kampuchea's economic policy was similar to, and possibly inspired by, China's radical [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward <u>Great Leap Forward</u>] that carried out immediate collectivisation of the Chinese countryside in 1958. During the early 1970s, the Khmer Rouge established "mutual assistance groups" in the areas they occupied. | ||
After 1973, these were organised into "low-level cooperatives" in which land and agricultural implements were lent by peasants to the community but remained their private property. "High-level cooperatives," in which private property was abolished and the harvest became the collective property of the peasants, appeared in 1974. "Communities," introduced in early 1976, were a more advanced form of high-level cooperative in which communal dining was instituted. State-owned farms also were established. | After 1973, these were organised into "low-level cooperatives" in which land and agricultural implements were lent by peasants to the community but remained their private property. "High-level cooperatives," in which private property was abolished and the harvest became the collective property of the peasants, appeared in 1974. "Communities," introduced in early 1976, were a more advanced form of high-level cooperative in which communal dining was instituted. State-owned farms also were established. | ||
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Western historians claim that the motives were political, based on deep-rooted resentment of the cities. The Khmer Rouge was determined to turn the country into a nation of peasants in which the corruption and "parasitism" of city life would be completely uprooted. In addition, Pol Pot wanted to break up the "enemy spy organisations" that allegedly were based in the urban areas. Finally, it seems that Pol Pot and his hard-line associates on the [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CPK_Political_Bureau&action=edit&redlink=1 <u>CPK Political Bureau</u>] used the forced evacuations to gain control of the city's population and to weaken the position of their factional rivals within the communist party. | Western historians claim that the motives were political, based on deep-rooted resentment of the cities. The Khmer Rouge was determined to turn the country into a nation of peasants in which the corruption and "parasitism" of city life would be completely uprooted. In addition, Pol Pot wanted to break up the "enemy spy organisations" that allegedly were based in the urban areas. Finally, it seems that Pol Pot and his hard-line associates on the [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CPK_Political_Bureau&action=edit&redlink=1 <u>CPK Political Bureau</u>] used the forced evacuations to gain control of the city's population and to weaken the position of their factional rivals within the communist party. | ||
==Terror [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=7 <u>edit</u>]]== | ==Terror [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=7 <u>edit</u>]]== | ||
A security apparatus called [ | A security apparatus called [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santebal <u>Santebal</u>] was part of the Khmer Rouge organizational structure well before April 17, 1975 when the Khmer Rouge took control over Cambodia. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Son_Sen <u>Son Sen</u>], later the Deputy Prime Minister for Defense of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Kampuchea <u>Democratic Kampuchea</u>], was in charge of the Santebal, and in that capacity he appointed [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comrade_Duch <u>Comrade Duch</u>] to run its security apparatus. When the Khmer Rouge took power in 1975, Duch moved his headquarters to Phnom Penh and reported directly to Son Sen. At that time, a small chapel in the capital was used to incarcerate the regime's prisoners, who totaled fewer than two hundred. In May 1976, Duch moved his headquarters to its final location, a former high school known as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuol_Sleng <u>Tuol Sleng</u>], which could hold up to 1,500 prisoners. | ||
The Khmer Rouge government arrested, [ | The Khmer Rouge government arrested, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torture <u>tortured</u>] and eventually executed anyone suspected of belonging to several categories of supposed "enemies": | ||
*Anyone with connections to the former government or with foreign governments. | *Anyone with connections to the former government or with foreign governments. | ||
*Professionals and intellectuals—in practice this included almost everyone with an education, or even people wearing glasses (which, according to the regime, meant that they were literate). Ironically and hypocritically, Pol Pot himself was a university-educated man (albeit a drop-out) with a taste for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_literature <u>French literature</u>] and was also a fluent French speaker. Many artists, including musicians, writers and film makers were executed. Some like [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ros_Sereysothea <u>Ros Sereysothea</u>], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_Ron <u>Pan Ron</u>] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinn_Sisamouth <u>Sinn Sisamouth</u>] gained posthumous fame for their talents and are still popular with Khmers today. | *Professionals and intellectuals—in practice this included almost everyone with an education, or even people wearing glasses (which, according to the regime, meant that they were literate). Ironically and hypocritically, Pol Pot himself was a university-educated man (albeit a drop-out) with a taste for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_literature <u>French literature</u>] and was also a fluent French speaker. Many artists, including musicians, writers and film makers were executed. Some like [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ros_Sereysothea <u>Ros Sereysothea</u>], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_Ron <u>Pan Ron</u>] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinn_Sisamouth <u>Sinn Sisamouth</u>] gained posthumous fame for their talents and are still popular with Khmers today. | ||
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Through the 1970s, and especially after mid-1975, the party was also shaken by factional struggles. There were even armed attempts to topple Pol Pot. The resultant purges reached a crest in 1977 and 1978 when thousands, including some important KCP leaders, were executed. | Through the 1970s, and especially after mid-1975, the party was also shaken by factional struggles. There were even armed attempts to topple Pol Pot. The resultant purges reached a crest in 1977 and 1978 when thousands, including some important KCP leaders, were executed. | ||
Today, examples of the torture methods used by the Khmer Rouge can be seen at the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuol_Sleng_Genocide_Museum <u>Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum</u>]. The museum occupies the former grounds of a high school turned [ | Today, examples of the torture methods used by the Khmer Rouge can be seen at the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuol_Sleng_Genocide_Museum <u>Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum</u>]. The museum occupies the former grounds of a high school turned [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internment <u>prison camp</u>] that was operated by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khang_Khek_Ieu <u>Khang Khek Ieu</u>], more commonly known as "Comrade Duch". | ||
The torture system at Tuol Sleng was designed to make prisoners confess to whatever crimes they were charged with by their captors. In their confessions, the prisoners were asked to describe their personal background. If they were party members, they had to say when they joined the revolution and describe their work assignments in DK. Then the prisoners would relate their supposed treasonous activities in chronological order. The third section of the confession text described prisoners’ thwarted conspiracies and supposed treasonous conversations. At the end, the confessions would list a string of traitors who were the prisoners’ friends, colleagues, or acquaintances. Some lists contained over a hundred names. People whose names were in the confession list were often called in for interrogation. Typical confessions ran into thousands of words in which the prisoner would interweave true events in their lives with imaginary accounts of their espionage activities for the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA <u>CIA</u>], the [ | The torture system at Tuol Sleng was designed to make prisoners confess to whatever crimes they were charged with by their captors. In their confessions, the prisoners were asked to describe their personal background. If they were party members, they had to say when they joined the revolution and describe their work assignments in DK. Then the prisoners would relate their supposed treasonous activities in chronological order. The third section of the confession text described prisoners’ thwarted conspiracies and supposed treasonous conversations. At the end, the confessions would list a string of traitors who were the prisoners’ friends, colleagues, or acquaintances. Some lists contained over a hundred names. People whose names were in the confession list were often called in for interrogation. Typical confessions ran into thousands of words in which the prisoner would interweave true events in their lives with imaginary accounts of their espionage activities for the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA <u>CIA</u>], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KGB <u>KGB</u>], or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam <u>Vietnam</u>]. | ||
Some 17,000 people passed through [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuol_Sleng_Genocide_Museum <u>Tuol Sleng Centre</u>] (also known as S-21) before they were taken to sites (also known as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Killing_Fields <u>The Killing Fields</u>]), outside Phnom Penh such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choeung_Ek <u>Choeung Ek</u>] where most were executed (mainly by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickaxe <u>pickaxes</u>] to save bullets) and buried in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_grave <u>mass graves</u>]. Of the thousands who entered Tuol Sleng only twelve are known to have survived. | Some 17,000 people passed through [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuol_Sleng_Genocide_Museum <u>Tuol Sleng Centre</u>] (also known as S-21) before they were taken to sites (also known as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Killing_Fields <u>The Killing Fields</u>]), outside Phnom Penh such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choeung_Ek <u>Choeung Ek</u>] where most were executed (mainly by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickaxe <u>pickaxes</u>] to save bullets) and buried in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_grave <u>mass graves</u>]. Of the thousands who entered Tuol Sleng only twelve are known to have survived. | ||
==Number of deaths [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=8 <u>edit</u>]]== | ==Number of deaths [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=8 <u>edit</u>]]== | ||
Modern research has located 20,000 mass graves from the Khmer Rouge era all over Cambodia. Various studies have estimated the death toll at between 740,000 and 3,000,000, most commonly between 1.4 million and 2.2 million, with perhaps half of those deaths being due to executions, and the rest from starvation and disease. | Modern research has located 20,000 mass graves from the Khmer Rouge era all over Cambodia. Various studies have estimated the death toll at between 740,000 and 3,000,000, most commonly between 1.4 million and 2.2 million, with perhaps half of those deaths being due to executions, and the rest from starvation and disease. | ||
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A UN investigation reported 2–3 million dead, while UNICEF estimated 3 million had been killed. Demographic analysis by Patrick Heuveline suggests that between 1.17 and 3.42 million Cambodians were killed, while Marek Sliwinski estimates that 1.8 million is a conservative figure. Researcher Craig Etcheson of the Documentation Center of Cambodia suggests that the death toll was between 2 and 2.5 million, with a "most likely" figure of 2.2 million. After 5 years of researching grave sites, he concluded that "these mass graves contain the remains of 1,386,734 victims of execution". | A UN investigation reported 2–3 million dead, while UNICEF estimated 3 million had been killed. Demographic analysis by Patrick Heuveline suggests that between 1.17 and 3.42 million Cambodians were killed, while Marek Sliwinski estimates that 1.8 million is a conservative figure. Researcher Craig Etcheson of the Documentation Center of Cambodia suggests that the death toll was between 2 and 2.5 million, with a "most likely" figure of 2.2 million. After 5 years of researching grave sites, he concluded that "these mass graves contain the remains of 1,386,734 victims of execution". | ||
==Religious communities [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=9 <u>edit</u>]]== | ==Religious communities [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=9 <u>edit</u>]]== | ||
Article 20 of the 1976 Constitution of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Kampuchea <u>Democratic Kampuchea</u>] guaranteed religious freedom, but it also declared that "all reactionary religions that are detrimental to Democratic Kampuchea and the Kampuchean People are strictly forbidden." About 85 | Article 20 of the 1976 Constitution of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Kampuchea <u>Democratic Kampuchea</u>] guaranteed religious freedom, but it also declared that "all reactionary religions that are detrimental to Democratic Kampuchea and the Kampuchean People are strictly forbidden." About 85 percent of the population follows the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravada <u>Theravada</u>] school of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism <u>Buddhism</u>]. The country's 40,000 to 60,000 Buddhist monks, regarded by the regime as social parasites, were defrocked and forced into labour brigades. | ||
Many monks were executed; temples and pagodas were destroyed or turned into storehouses or gaols. Images of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha <u>Buddha</u>] were defaced and dumped into rivers and lakes. People who were discovered praying or expressing religious sentiments were often killed. The Christian and Muslim communities also were even more persecuted, as they were labelled as part of a pro-Western cosmopolitan sphere, hindering Cambodian culture and society. | Many monks were executed; temples and pagodas were destroyed or turned into storehouses or gaols. Images of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha <u>Buddha</u>] were defaced and dumped into rivers and lakes. People who were discovered praying or expressing religious sentiments were often killed. The Christian and Muslim communities also were even more persecuted, as they were labelled as part of a pro-Western cosmopolitan sphere, hindering Cambodian culture and society. | ||
The Roman Catholic cathedral of Phnom Penh was completely razed. The Khmer Rouge forced Muslims to eat pork, which they regard as forbidden ''([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B8%A4ar%C4%81m <u>ḥarām</u>]).'' Many of those who refused were killed. Christian clergy and Muslim [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imam <u>imams</u>] were executed. | The Roman Catholic cathedral of Phnom Penh was completely razed. The Khmer Rouge forced Muslims to eat pork, which they regard as forbidden ''([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B8%A4ar%C4%81m <u>ḥarām</u>]).'' Many of those who refused were killed. Christian clergy and Muslim [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imam <u>imams</u>] were executed. One hundred and thirty [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cham_people <u>Cham</u>] mosques were destroyed. | ||
==Ethnic minorities [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=10 <u>edit</u>]]== | ==Ethnic minorities [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=10 <u>edit</u>]]== | ||
The Khmer Rouge banned by decree the existence of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Cambodian <u>ethnic Chinese</u>], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_people <u>Vietnamese</u>], Muslim [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cham_(Asia) <u>Cham</u>], and 20 other minorities, which altogether constituted 15% of the population at the beginning of the Khmer Rouge's rule. | The Khmer Rouge banned by decree the existence of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Cambodian <u>ethnic Chinese</u>], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_people <u>Vietnamese</u>], Muslim [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cham_(Asia) <u>Cham</u>], and 20 other minorities, which altogether constituted 15% of the population at the beginning of the Khmer Rouge's rule. | ||
Tens of thousands of Vietnamese were raped, mutilated, and | Tens of thousands of Vietnamese were raped, mutilated, and murdered in regime-organised massacres. Most of the survivors fled to Vietnam. | ||
The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cham_(Asia) <u>Cham</u>], a Muslim minority who are the descendants of migrants from the old state of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champa <u>Champa</u>], were forced to adopt the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_language <u>Khmer language</u>] and customs. Their communities, which traditionally had existed apart from Khmer villages, were broken up. | The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cham_(Asia) <u>Cham</u>], a Muslim minority who are the descendants of migrants from the old state of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champa <u>Champa</u>], were forced to adopt the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_language <u>Khmer language</u>] and customs. Their communities, which traditionally had existed apart from Khmer villages, were broken up. Forty thousand Cham were killed in two districts of Kampong Cham Province alone. Thai minorities living near the Thai border also were persecuted. | ||
The state of the Chinese Cambodians was described as "the worst disaster ever to befall any ethnic Chinese community in Southeast Asia". [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Cambodian <u>Cambodians of Chinese descent</u>] were massacred by the Khmer Rouge under the justification that they "used to exploit the Cambodian people". The Chinese were stereotyped as traders and moneylenders, and therefore were associated with capitalism. Among the Khmer, the Chinese were also resented for their lighter [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_color <u>skin color</u>] and cultural differences. Hundreds of Chinese families were rounded up in 1978 and told that they were to be resettled, but were actually executed. At the beginning of the Khmer Rouge's rule in 1975, there were 425,000 ethnic Chinese in Cambodia; by the end in 1979, there were 200,000. In addition to being a proscribed ethnic group by the government, the Chinese were predominantly city-dwellers, making them vulnerable to the Khmer Rouge's revolutionary ruralism. The government of the People's Republic of China did not protest the killings of ethnic Chinese in Cambodia. The policies of the Khmer Rouge towards Sino-Cambodians seems puzzling in light of the fact that the two most powerful people in the regime and presumably the originators of the racist doctrine, Pol Pot and | The state of the Chinese Cambodians was described as "the worst disaster ever to befall any ethnic Chinese community in Southeast Asia". [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Cambodian <u>Cambodians of Chinese descent</u>] were massacred by the Khmer Rouge under the justification that they "used to exploit the Cambodian people". The Chinese were stereotyped as traders and moneylenders, and therefore were associated with capitalism. Among the Khmer, the Chinese were also resented for their lighter [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_color <u>skin color</u>] and cultural differences. Hundreds of Chinese families were rounded up in 1978 and told that they were to be resettled, but were actually executed. At the beginning of the Khmer Rouge's rule in 1975, there were 425,000 ethnic Chinese in Cambodia; by the end in 1979, there were 200,000. In addition to being a proscribed ethnic group by the government, the Chinese were predominantly city-dwellers, making them vulnerable to the Khmer Rouge's revolutionary ruralism. The government of the People's Republic of China did not protest the killings of ethnic Chinese in Cambodia. The policies of the Khmer Rouge towards Sino-Cambodians seems puzzling in light of the fact that the two most powerful people in the regime and presumably the originators of the racist doctrine, Pol Pot and Nuon Chea, both had mixed Chinese-Cambodian ancestry. Other senior figures in the Khmer Rouge state apparatus such as Son Sen and Ta Mok also had Chinese ethnic heritage. | ||
In the late 1980s, little was known of Khmer Rouge policies toward the tribal peoples of the northeast, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_Loeu <u>Khmer Loeu</u>]. Pol Pot established an insurgent base in the tribal areas of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratanakiri <u>Ratanakiri</u>] Province in the early 1960s, and he may have had a substantial Khmer Loeu following. Predominantly animist peoples, with few ties to the Buddhist culture of the lowland Khmers, the Khmer Loeu had resented Sihanouk's attempts to "civilise" them. | In the late 1980s, little was known of Khmer Rouge policies toward the tribal peoples of the northeast, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_Loeu <u>Khmer Loeu</u>]. Pol Pot established an insurgent base in the tribal areas of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratanakiri <u>Ratanakiri</u>] Province in the early 1960s, and he may have had a substantial Khmer Loeu following. Predominantly animist peoples, with few ties to the Buddhist culture of the lowland Khmers, the Khmer Loeu had resented Sihanouk's attempts to "civilise" them. | ||
==International relations [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=11 <u>edit</u>]]== | ==International relations [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=11 <u>edit</u>]]== | ||
The 'Democratic Kampuchea' regime had closer ties with China (its main backer) and to a lesser extent with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Korea <u>North Korea</u>]. In 1977, in a message congratulating the Cambodian comrades on the 17th anniversary of the CKP, [ | The 'Democratic Kampuchea' regime had closer ties with China (its main backer) and to a lesser extent with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Korea <u>North Korea</u>]. In 1977, in a message congratulating the Cambodian comrades on the 17th anniversary of the CKP, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Jong-Il <u>Kim Jong-Il</u>] congratulated the Cambodian people for having "wiped out [...] counterrevolutionary group of spies who had committed subversive activities and sabotage" Only China, North Korea, Egypt, Albania, Cuba, Laos, Vietnam (until December 1977), Romania and Yugoslavia had diplomatic missions in Phnom Penh. | ||
==The fall of Democratic Kampuchea [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=12 <u>edit</u>]]== | ==The fall of Democratic Kampuchea [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=12 <u>edit</u>]]== | ||
Main article: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War <u>Cambodian–Vietnamese War</u>]Not content with ruling Cambodia, the KR leaders also dreamed of reviving the Angkorian empire of a thousand years earlier, which ruled over large parts of what today are Thailand and Vietnam. This involved launching military attacks into southern Vietnam in which hundreds of unarmed villagers were massacred. | Main article: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War <u>Cambodian–Vietnamese War</u>]Not content with ruling Cambodia, the KR leaders also dreamed of reviving the Angkorian empire of a thousand years earlier, which ruled over large parts of what today are Thailand and Vietnam. This involved launching military attacks into southern Vietnam in which hundreds of unarmed villagers were massacred. | ||
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Faced with growing Khmer Rouge belligerence, the Vietnamese leadership decided in early 1978 to support internal resistance to the Pol Pot regime, with the result that the Eastern Zone became a focus of insurrection. War hysteria reached bizarre levels within Democratic Kampuchea. In May 1978, on the eve of [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=So_Phim&action=edit&redlink=1 <u>So Phim</u>]'s Eastern Zone uprising, Radio Phnom Penh declared that if each Cambodian soldier killed thirty Vietnamese, only 2 million troops would be needed to eliminate the entire Vietnamese population of 50 million. It appears that the leadership in Phnom Penh was seized with immense territorial ambitions, i.e., to recover [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampuchea_Krom <u>Kampuchea Krom</u>], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mekong <u>Mekong Delta</u>] region, which they regarded as Khmer territory. | Faced with growing Khmer Rouge belligerence, the Vietnamese leadership decided in early 1978 to support internal resistance to the Pol Pot regime, with the result that the Eastern Zone became a focus of insurrection. War hysteria reached bizarre levels within Democratic Kampuchea. In May 1978, on the eve of [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=So_Phim&action=edit&redlink=1 <u>So Phim</u>]'s Eastern Zone uprising, Radio Phnom Penh declared that if each Cambodian soldier killed thirty Vietnamese, only 2 million troops would be needed to eliminate the entire Vietnamese population of 50 million. It appears that the leadership in Phnom Penh was seized with immense territorial ambitions, i.e., to recover [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampuchea_Krom <u>Kampuchea Krom</u>], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mekong <u>Mekong Delta</u>] region, which they regarded as Khmer territory. | ||
Massacres of ethnic Vietnamese and of their sympathizers by the Khmer Rouge intensified in the Eastern Zone after the May revolt. In November, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vorn_Vet <u>Vorn Vet</u>] led an unsuccessful coup d'état. There were now tens of thousands of Cambodian and Vietnamese | Massacres of ethnic Vietnamese and of their sympathizers by the Khmer Rouge intensified in the Eastern Zone after the May revolt. In November, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vorn_Vet <u>Vorn Vet</u>] led an unsuccessful coup d'état. There were now tens of thousands of Cambodian and Vietnamese exiles on Vietnamese territory. | ||
On December 3, 1978, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Hanoi <u>Radio Hanoi</u>] announced the formation of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampuchean_National_United_Front_for_National_Salvation <u>Kampuchean National United Front for National Salvation</u>] (KNUFNS). This was a heterogeneous group of communist and noncommunist exiles who shared an antipathy to the Pol Pot regime and a virtually total dependence on Vietnamese backing and protection. The KNUFNS provided the semblance, if not the reality, of legitimacy for Vietnam's invasion of Democratic Kampuchea and for its subsequent establishment of a satellite regime in Phnom Penh. | On December 3, 1978, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Hanoi <u>Radio Hanoi</u>] announced the formation of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampuchean_National_United_Front_for_National_Salvation <u>Kampuchean National United Front for National Salvation</u>] (KNUFNS). This was a heterogeneous group of communist and noncommunist exiles who shared an antipathy to the Pol Pot regime and a virtually total dependence on Vietnamese backing and protection. The KNUFNS provided the semblance, if not the reality, of legitimacy for Vietnam's invasion of Democratic Kampuchea and for its subsequent establishment of a satellite regime in Phnom Penh. | ||
In the meantime, as 1978 wore on, Cambodian bellicosity in the border areas surpassed Hanoi's threshold of tolerance. Vietnamese policy makers opted for a military solution and, on December 22, | In the meantime, as 1978 wore on, Cambodian bellicosity in the border areas surpassed Hanoi's threshold of tolerance. Vietnamese policy makers opted for a military solution and, on December 22, Vietnam launched its offensive with the intent of overthrowing Democratic Kampuchea. A force of 120,000, consisting of combined armor and infantry units with strong artillery support, drove west into the level countryside of Cambodia's southeastern provinces. Together, the Vietnamese army and the National Salvation Front struck at the KR on December 25. | ||
After a seventeen-day campaign, Phnom Penh fell to the advancing Vietnamese on January 7, 1979. Pol Pot and the main leaders initially took refuge near the border with Thailand. After making deals with several governments, they were able to use Thailand as a safe staging area for the construction and operation of new redoubts in the mountain and jungle fastness of Cambodia's periphery, Pol Pot and other Khmer Rouge leaders regrouped their units, issued a new call to arms, and reignited a stubborn insurgency against the regime in power as they had done in the late 1960s. | After a seventeen-day campaign, Phnom Penh fell to the advancing Vietnamese on January 7, 1979. Pol Pot and the main leaders initially took refuge near the border with Thailand. After making deals with several governments, they were able to use Thailand as a safe staging area for the construction and operation of new redoubts in the mountain and jungle fastness of Cambodia's periphery, Pol Pot and other Khmer Rouge leaders regrouped their units, issued a new call to arms, and reignited a stubborn insurgency against the regime in power as they had done in the late 1960s. | ||
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As events in the 1980s progressed, the main preoccupations of the new regime were survival, restoring the economy, and combating the Khmer Rouge insurgency by military and by political means. The fostering of activity to meet these imperatives and the building of institutions are described in subsequent articles in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Cambodia <u>History of Cambodia</u>] series. | As events in the 1980s progressed, the main preoccupations of the new regime were survival, restoring the economy, and combating the Khmer Rouge insurgency by military and by political means. The fostering of activity to meet these imperatives and the building of institutions are described in subsequent articles in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Cambodia <u>History of Cambodia</u>] series. | ||
==Aftermath [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=13 <u>edit</u>]]== | ==Aftermath [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=13 <u>edit</u>]]== | ||
===The Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=14 <u>edit</u>]]=== | ===The Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=14 <u>edit</u>]]=== | ||
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===Legal questions relating to the status of the deaths in Cambodia -- genocide, democide, or other? [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=17 <u>edit</u>]]=== | ===Legal questions relating to the status of the deaths in Cambodia -- genocide, democide, or other? [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khmer_Rouge_rule_of_Cambodia&action=edit§ion=17 <u>edit</u>]]=== | ||
While the events in Cambodia are widely considered to be a genocide or democide and referred to as such, some<span style="font-size:11.199999809265137px;line-height:0px;white-space:nowrap;"> </span>argue that the deaths in Cambodia fail to meet the definition of genocide in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prevention_and_Punishment_of_the_Crime_of_Genocide <u>Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide</u>].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodian_Genocide#cite_note-23 <u>[23</u>]]</sup> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Rosefielde <u>Steven Rosefielde</u>] states that there is "no evidence Pol Pot sought to exterminate the Khmer people, or even the Cham and religious minorities." Instead, he defines Khmer Rouge killings as "''dystopicide''": "The no-prisoners-taken pursuit of badly implemented, poorly conceived communist utopia-building." | While the events in Cambodia are widely considered to be a genocide or democide and referred to as such, some<span style="font-size:11.199999809265137px;line-height:0px;white-space:nowrap;"> </span>argue that the deaths in Cambodia fail to meet the definition of genocide in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prevention_and_Punishment_of_the_Crime_of_Genocide <u>Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide</u>].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodian_Genocide#cite_note-23 <u>[23</u>]]</sup> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Rosefielde <u>Steven Rosefielde</u>] states that there is "no evidence Pol Pot sought to exterminate the Khmer people, or even the Cham and religious minorities." Instead, he defines Khmer Rouge killings as "''dystopicide''": "The no-prisoners-taken pursuit of badly implemented, poorly conceived communist utopia-building." | ||
[[Category:List]] | [[Category:List]] | ||
[[Category:Villainous Event]] | [[Category:Villainous Event]] | ||
[[Category:Mass Murderer]] | |||
[[Category:Mass | |||