Jean-Bédel Bokassa: Difference between revisions
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Bokassa sought recognition for his status as leader of the army. He frequently appeared in public wearing all his military decorations, and in ceremonies, he often sat next to President Dacko to display his importance in the government. Bokassa frequently got into heated arguments with Jean-Paul Douate, the government's chief of protocol, who admonished him for not following the correct order of seating at presidential tables. At first, Dacko found his cousin's antics amusing.<span style="font-size:11px;line-height:0px;"> </span>Despite the number of recent military coups in Africa, Dacko publicly dismissed the likelihood that Bokassa would try to take control of the country. At an official dinner, he said, "Colonel Bokassa only wants to collect medals and he is too stupid to pull off a coup d'état".<span style="font-size:11px;line-height:0px;"> </span>Other members of Dacko's cabinet believed that Bokassa was a genuine threat to the regime. Jean-Arthur Bandio, the minister of interior, suggested Dacko name Bokassa to the Cabinet, which he hoped would both break the colonel's close connections with the CAR army and satisfy the colonel's desire for recognition. To combat the chance that Bokassa would stage a coup, Dacko created the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendarmerie gendarmerie], an armed police force of 500 and a 120-member presidential security guard, led by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Izamo Jean Izamo] and Prosper Mounoumbaye, respectively. | Bokassa sought recognition for his status as leader of the army. He frequently appeared in public wearing all his military decorations, and in ceremonies, he often sat next to President Dacko to display his importance in the government. Bokassa frequently got into heated arguments with Jean-Paul Douate, the government's chief of protocol, who admonished him for not following the correct order of seating at presidential tables. At first, Dacko found his cousin's antics amusing.<span style="font-size:11px;line-height:0px;"> </span>Despite the number of recent military coups in Africa, Dacko publicly dismissed the likelihood that Bokassa would try to take control of the country. At an official dinner, he said, "Colonel Bokassa only wants to collect medals and he is too stupid to pull off a coup d'état".<span style="font-size:11px;line-height:0px;"> </span>Other members of Dacko's cabinet believed that Bokassa was a genuine threat to the regime. Jean-Arthur Bandio, the minister of interior, suggested Dacko name Bokassa to the Cabinet, which he hoped would both break the colonel's close connections with the CAR army and satisfy the colonel's desire for recognition. To combat the chance that Bokassa would stage a coup, Dacko created the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendarmerie gendarmerie], an armed police force of 500 and a 120-member presidential security guard, led by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Izamo Jean Izamo] and Prosper Mounoumbaye, respectively. | ||
==Tensions rise between Dacko and Bokassa== | ==Tensions rise between Dacko and Bokassa== | ||
Dacko's government faced a number of problems during 1964 and 1965: the economy experienced [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_stagnation stagnation], the bureaucracy started to fall apart, and the country's boundaries were constantly breached by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba Lumumbists] from the south and the rebel [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan_People%27s_Liberation_Army Sudan People's Liberation Army] from the east. | Dacko's government faced a number of problems during 1964 and 1965: the economy experienced [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_stagnation stagnation], the bureaucracy started to fall apart, and the country's boundaries were constantly breached by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba Lumumbists] from the south and the rebel [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan_People%27s_Liberation_Army Sudan People's Liberation Army] from the east. Under pressure from political radicals in the ''Mouvement pour l'évolution sociale de l'Afrique noire'' (Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MESAN MESAN]) and in an attempt to cultivate alternative sources of support and display his ability to make foreign policy without the help of the French government, Dacko established diplomatic relations with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Zedong Mao Zedong]'s [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China People's Republic of China] (PRC) in September 1964. A delegation led by Meng Yieng and agents of the Chinese government toured the country, showing [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China communist propaganda films]. Soon after, the PRC gave the CAR an interest-free loan of one billion [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CFA_franc CFA francs] (20 million [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_franc French francs]); however, the aid failed to subdue the prospect of a financial collapse for the country. Widespread [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_corruption corruption] by government officials and politicians added to the country's list of problems. Bokassa felt that he needed to take over the CAR government to solve all the country's problems—most importantly, to rid the country from the influence of communism. According to Samuel Decalo, a scholar on African government, Bokassa's personal ambitions played the most important role in his decision to launch a coup against Dacko. | ||
Dacko sent Bokassa to Paris as part of the country's delegation for the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastille_Day Bastille Day] celebrations in July 1965. After attending the celebrations and a 23 July ceremony to mark the closing of a military officer training school he had attended decades earlier, Bokassa decided to return to the CAR. However, Dacko forbade his return, | Dacko sent Bokassa to Paris as part of the country's delegation for the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastille_Day Bastille Day] celebrations in July 1965. After attending the celebrations and a 23 July ceremony to mark the closing of a military officer training school he had attended decades earlier, Bokassa decided to return to the CAR. However, Dacko forbade his return, and the infuriated Bokassa spent the next few months trying to obtain supporters from the French and Central African armed forces, who he hoped would force Dacko to reconsider his decision. Dacko eventually yielded to pressure and allowed Bokassa back in October 1965. Bokassa claimed that Dacko finally gave up after French [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_French_Republic President] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle Charles de Gaulle] had personally told Dacko that "Bokassa must be immediately returned to his post. I cannot tolerate the mistreatment of my companion-in-arms". | ||
Tensions between Dacko and Bokassa continued to escalate in the coming months. In December, Dacko approved an increase in the budget for Izamo's gendarmerie, but rejected the budget proposal Bokassa had made for the army. | Tensions between Dacko and Bokassa continued to escalate in the coming months. In December, Dacko approved an increase in the budget for Izamo's gendarmerie, but rejected the budget proposal Bokassa had made for the army. At this point, Bokassa told friends he was annoyed by Dacko's mistreatment and was "going for a coup d'état". Dacko planned to replace Bokassa with Izamo as his personal [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_adviser military adviser], and wanted to promote army officers loyal to the government, while demoting Bokassa and his close associates. Dacko did not conceal his plans; he hinted at his intentions to elders of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobangui Bobangui] village, who in turn informed Bokassa of the plot. Bokassa realized he had to act against Dacko quickly, and worried that his 500-man army would be no match for the gendarmerie and the presidential guard.<span style="line-height:0px;"> </span>He was also overwrought over the possibility that the French would come to Dacko's aid after the coup d'état, as had occurred after one in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabon Gabon] against President [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9on_M%27ba Léon M'ba] in February 1964. After receiving word of the coup from the country's vice president, officials in Paris sent [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paratrooper paratroopers] to Gabon in a matter of hours and M'Ba was quickly restored to power. | ||
Bokassa received substantive support from his co-conspirator, Captain [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Banza Alexandre Banza], who commanded the Camp Kassaï military base in northeast Bangui, and, like Bokassa, had been stationed with the French army around the world. Banza was an intelligent, ambitious and capable man who played a major role in the planning of the coup. | Bokassa received substantive support from his co-conspirator, Captain [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Banza Alexandre Banza], who commanded the Camp Kassaï military base in northeast Bangui, and, like Bokassa, had been stationed with the French army around the world. Banza was an intelligent, ambitious and capable man who played a major role in the planning of the coup. By December, many people began to anticipate the political turmoil that would soon engulf the country. Dacko's personal advisers alerted him that Bokassa "showed signs of mental instability" and needed to be arrested before he sought to bring down the government but Dacko did not heed these warnings. | ||
==Coup d'état== | ==Coup d'état== | ||
Dacko left the Palais de la Renaissance early in the evening of 31 December 1965 to visit one of his ministers' plantations southwest of Bangui. | Dacko left the Palais de la Renaissance early in the evening of 31 December 1965 to visit one of his ministers' plantations southwest of Bangui. An hour and a half before midnight, Captain Banza gave orders to his officers to begin the coup. Bokassa called Izamo at his headquarters and asked him to come to Camp de Roux to sign some documents that needed his immediate attention. Izamo, who was at a New Year's Eve celebration with friends, reluctantly agreed and travelled to the camp. Upon arrival, he was confronted by Banza and Bokassa, who informed him of the coup in progress. After declaring his opposition to the coup, Izamo was taken by the coup plotters to an underground [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basement cellar].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Titleyp27_22-1">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-B%C3%A9del_Bokassa#cite_note-Titleyp27-22 [22]]</sup> | ||
Around midnight, Bokassa, Banza and their supporters left Camp de Roux to take over the capital.< | Around midnight, Bokassa, Banza and their supporters left Camp de Roux to take over the capital.<span style="line-height:0px;"> </span><span style="font-size:13px;line-height:21px;">After seizing the capital in a matter of hours, Bokassa and Banza rushed to the Palais de la Renaissance in order to arrest Dacko. However, Dacko was nowhere to be found. Bokassa panicked, believing the president had been warned of the coup in advance, and immediately ordered his soldiers to search for Dacko in the countryside until he was found.</span><span style="font-size:13px;line-height:21px;">Dacko was arrested by soldiers patrolling Pétévo Junction, on the western border of the capital. He was taken back to the presidential palace, where Bokassa hugged the president and told him, "I tried to warn you—but now it's too late". President Dacko was taken to Ngaragba Prison in east Bangui at around 02:00 </span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_African_Time WAT]<span style="font-size:13px;line-height:21px;"> (01:00 </span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTC UTC]<span style="font-size:13px;line-height:21px;">). In a move that he thought would boost his popularity in the country, Bokassa ordered prison director Otto Sacher to release all prisoners in the jail. Bokassa then took Dacko to Camp Kassaï, where he forced the president to resign. Later, Bokassa's officers announced on Radio-Bangui that the Dacko government had been toppled and Bokassa had taken over control.</span><span style="font-size:13px;line-height:21px;"> In the morning, Bokassa addressed the public via Radio-Bangui: </span>''Centrafricains! Centrafricains! C'est le colonel Bokassa vous parle. Depuis 3h00 ce matin, votre armée a pris le contrôle du gouvernement. Le gouvernement Dacko a démissionné. L'heure de la justice est à portée de main. La bourgeoisie est abolie. Une nouvelle ère de l'égalité entre tous a commencé. Centrafricains, où que vous soyez, soyez assuré que l'armée va vous défendre et de vos biens... Vive la République centrafricaine!''<span style="font-size:13px;line-height:21px;">Translation:</span> | ||
''Centrafricains! Centrafricains! C'est le colonel Bokassa vous parle. Depuis 3h00 ce matin, votre armée a pris le contrôle du gouvernement. Le gouvernement Dacko a démissionné. L'heure de la justice est à portée de main. La bourgeoisie est abolie. Une nouvelle ère de l'égalité entre tous a commencé. Centrafricains, où que vous soyez, soyez assuré que l'armée va vous défendre et de vos biens... Vive la République centrafricaine!''Translation: | |||
Central Africans! Central Africans! This is Colonel Bokassa speaking to you. At 3:00 a.m. this morning, your army took control of the government. The Dacko government has resigned. The hour of justice is at hand. The bourgeoisie is abolished. A new era of equality among all has begun. Central Africans, wherever you may be, be assured that the army will defend you and your property ... Long live the Central African Republic! | Central Africans! Central Africans! This is Colonel Bokassa speaking to you. At 3:00 a.m. this morning, your army took control of the government. The Dacko government has resigned. The hour of justice is at hand. The bourgeoisie is abolished. A new era of equality among all has begun. Central Africans, wherever you may be, be assured that the army will defend you and your property ... Long live the Central African Republic! | ||
==Early years of regime== | |||
Bokassa first secured diplomatic recognition from President [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Tombalbaye François Tombalbaye] of neighboring [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad Chad], whom he met in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouca Bouca], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouham Ouham]. After Bokassa reciprocated by meeting Tombalbaye on 2 April 1966 along the southern border of Chad at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarh Fort Archambault], the two decided to help one another if either was in danger of losing power.< | |||
In the early days of his regime, Bokassa engaged in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-promotion self-promotion] before the local media, showing his countrymen his French army medals, and displaying his strength, fearlessness and masculinity. He formed a new government called the Revolutionary Council, invalidated the constitution and dissolved the National Assembly.<span style="line-height:0px;"> </span>He called it "a lifeless organ no longer representing the people". In his address to the nation, Bokassa claimed that the government would hold elections in the future, a new assembly would be formed, and a new constitution would be written. He also told his countrymen that he would give up his power after the communist threat had been eliminated, the economy stabilized, and corruption rooted out. President Bokassa allowed MESAN to continue functioning, but barred all other political organizations from the country. In the coming months, Bokassa imposed a number of new rules and regulations: men and women between the ages of 18 and 55 had to provide proof that they had jobs, or else they would be fined or imprisoned; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begging begging] was banned; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom-tom_drum tom-tom] playing was allowed only during the nights and weekends; and a "morality brigade" was formed in the capital to monitor bars and dance halls. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygamy Polygamy], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowry dowries] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_genital_cutting female circumcision] were all abolished. Bokassa also opened a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_transport public transport] system in Bangui made up of three interconnected bus lines through the capital city as well as a ferry service on the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubangi_river Ubangi river], and subsidized the creation of two national [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestra orchestras]. | |||
Despite the positive changes in the country, Bokassa had difficulty obtaining international recognition for his new government. He tried to justify the coup by explaining that Izamo and communist Chinese agents were trying to take over the government and that he had to intervene to save the CAR from the influence of communism. He alleged that Chinese agents in the countryside had been training and arming locals to start a revolution, and on 6 January 1966, he dismissed the communist agents from the country and cut off diplomatic relations with China. Bokassa also believed that the coup was necessary in order to prevent further corruption in the government. | |||
Bokassa first secured diplomatic recognition from President [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Tombalbaye François Tombalbaye] of neighboring [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad Chad], whom he met in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouca Bouca], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouham Ouham]. After Bokassa reciprocated by meeting Tombalbaye on 2 April 1966 along the southern border of Chad at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarh Fort Archambault], the two decided to help one another if either was in danger of losing power.<span style="line-height:0px;"> </span>Soon after, other African countries began to diplomatically recognize the new government. At first, the French government was reluctant to support the Bokassa regime, so Banza went to Paris to meet with French officials to convince them that the coup was necessary to save the country from turmoil. Bokassa met with Prime Minister [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Pompidou Georges Pompidou] on 7 July 1966, but the French remained noncommittal in offering their support. After Bokassa threatened to withdraw from the franc monetary zone, President Charles de Gaulle decided to make an official visit to the CAR on 17 November 1966. To the Bokassa regime, this visit meant that the French had finally accepted the new changes in the country. | |||
===Threat to power=== | ===Threat to power=== | ||
Bokassa and Banza had a major argument over the country's budget, as Banza adamantly opposed the president's extravagant spending. Bokassa moved to Camp de Roux, where he felt he could safely run the government without having to worry about Banza's thirst for power. | Bokassa and Banza had a major argument over the country's budget, as Banza adamantly opposed the president's extravagant spending. Bokassa moved to Camp de Roux, where he felt he could safely run the government without having to worry about Banza's thirst for power. In the meantime, Banza tried to obtain a support base within the army, spending much of his time in the company of soldiers. Bokassa recognized what his minister was doing, so he sent military units most sympathetic to Banza to the country's border and brought his own army supporters as close to the capital as possible. In September 1967, he took a special trip to Paris, where he asked for protection from French troops. Two months later, the government deployed 80 paratroopers to Bangui. | ||
On 13 April 1968, in another one of his frequent cabinet reshuffles, Bokassa demoted Banza to minister of health, but let him remain in his position as minister of state. Cognizant of the president's intentions, Banza increased his vocalization of dissenting political views.<span style="line-height:0px;"> </span>A year later, after Banza made a number of remarks highly critical of Bokassa and his management of the economy, the president, perceiving an immediate threat to his power, removed him as his minister of state. Banza revealed his intention to stage a coup to Lieutenant Jean-Claude Mandaba, the commanding officer of Camp Kassaï, who he looked to for support. Mandaba went along with the plan, but his allegiance remained with Bokassa. When Banza contacted his co-conspirators on 8 April 1969, informing them that they would execute the coup the following day, Mandaba immediately phoned Bokassa and informed him of the plan. When Banza entered Camp Kassaï on 9 April 1969, he was ambushed by Mandaba and his soldiers. The men had to break Banza's arms before they could overpower and throw him into the trunk of a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz Mercedes] and take him directly to Bokassa.<span style="line-height:0px;"> </span>At his house in Berengo, Bokassa nearly beat Banza to death before Mandaba suggested that Banza be put on trial for appearance's sake. | |||
On 12 April, Banza presented his case before a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_tribunal military tribunal] at Camp de Roux, where he admitted to his plan, but stated that he had not planned to kill Bokassa.<span style="line-height:0px;"> </span>He was [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_punishment sentenced to death] by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad firing squad], taken to an open field behind Camp Kassaï, executed and buried in an unmarked grave. The circumstances of Banza's death have been disputed. The Americans reported that Banza "was dragged before a Cabinet meeting where Bokassa slashed him with a razor. Guards then beat Banza until his back was broken, dragged him through the streets of Bangui and finally shot him." The French daily evening newspaper ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Monde Le Monde]'' reported that Banza was killed in circumstances "so revolting that it still makes one's flesh creep": | |||
Two versions concerning the end circumstances of his death differ on one minor detail. Did Bokassa tie him to a pillar before personally carving him with a knife that he had previously used for stirring his coffee in the gold-and-midnight blue Sèvres coffee set, or was the murder committed on the cabinet table with the help of other persons? Late that afternoon, soldiers dragged a still identifiable corpse, with the spinal column smashed, from barrack to barrack to serve as an example.<span style="line-height:0px;"> </span> | |||
==Rule during the 1970s== | |||
In 1971, Bokassa promoted himself to full general, and on 4 March 1972 declared himself [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_for_life president for life]. He survived another coup attempt in December 1974. The following month, on 2 January, he relinquished the position of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_minister prime minister] to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth_Domitien Elisabeth Domitien]. His domestic and foreign policies became increasingly unpredictable, leading to another assassination attempt at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangui_M%27Poko_International_Airport Bangui M'Poko International Airport] in February 1976. | |||
In 1971, Bokassa promoted himself to full general, and on 4 March 1972 declared himself [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_for_life president for life]. | |||
===Foreign support=== | ===Foreign support=== | ||
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muammar_al-Gaddafi Muammar al-Gaddafi] aided Bokassa.< | [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muammar_al-Gaddafi Muammar al-Gaddafi] aided Bokassa.<span style="line-height:0px;"> </span>France also supported Bokassa. In 1975, the French president [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Val%C3%A9ry_Giscard_d%27Estaing Valéry Giscard d'Estaing] declared himself a "friend and family member" of Bokassa. By that time France supplied its former colony's regime with financial and military backing. In exchange, Bokassa frequently took d'Estaing on hunting trips in Central Africa and supplied France with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium uranium], which was vital for France's nuclear energy and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction weapons] program in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War Cold War] era. | ||
The "friendly and fraternal" cooperation with France—according to Bokassa's own terms—reached its peak with the imperial coronation ceremony of Bokassa I on 4 December 1977. | The "friendly and fraternal" cooperation with France—according to Bokassa's own terms—reached its peak with the imperial coronation ceremony of Bokassa I on 4 December 1977. The French Defence Minister sent a battalion to secure the ceremony; he also lent 17 aircraft to the new Central African Empire's government, and even assigned French Navy personnel to support the orchestra. The coronation ceremony lasted for two days and cost 10 million [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GBP GBP], more than the annual budget of the Central African Republic. The ceremony was organized by French artist Jean-Pierre Dupont. Parisian jeweller Claude Bertrand made his crown, which included diamonds. Bokassa sat on a two-ton throne modeled in the shape of a large eagle made from solid gold. | ||
On 10 October 1979, the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canard_Encha%C3%AEn%C3%A9 Canard Enchaîné]'' satirical newspaper reported that President Bokassa had offered the then [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_of_Finance Minister of Finance] Valéry Giscard d'Estaing two diamonds in 1973. | On 10 October 1979, the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canard_Encha%C3%AEn%C3%A9 Canard Enchaîné]'' satirical newspaper reported that President Bokassa had offered the then [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_of_Finance Minister of Finance] Valéry Giscard d'Estaing two diamonds in 1973. This soon became a major political scandal known as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamonds_Affair Diamonds Affair], which contributed significantly to Giscard d'Estaing's losing his reelection bid. The Franco-Central African relationship drastically changed when France's [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renseignements_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9raux Renseignements Généraux] intelligence service learned of Bokassa's willingness to become a partner of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muammar_al-Gaddafi Muammar al-Gaddafi] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libya Libya]. | ||
After a meeting with Gaddafi in September 1976, Bokassa converted to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam Islam] and changed his name to Salah Eddine Ahmed Bokassa, but in December 1976 he converted back to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholicism Catholicism]. It is presumed that his conversion to Islam was a ploy calculated to ensure ongoing Libyan financial aid. When no funds promised by Gaddafi were forthcoming, Bokassa abandoned his new faith—which was also incompatible with his plans to be crowned emperor in the Catholic cathedral in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangui Bangui]. | After a meeting with Gaddafi in September 1976, Bokassa converted to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam Islam] and changed his name to Salah Eddine Ahmed Bokassa, but in December 1976 he converted back to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholicism Catholicism]. It is presumed that his conversion to Islam was a ploy calculated to ensure ongoing Libyan financial aid. When no funds promised by Gaddafi were forthcoming, Bokassa abandoned his new faith—which was also incompatible with his plans to be crowned emperor in the Catholic cathedral in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangui Bangui]. | ||
===Proclamation of the Empire=== | ===Proclamation of the Empire=== | ||
In September 1976, Bokassa dissolved the government and replaced it with the ''Conseil de la Révolution Centrafricaine'' (Central African Revolutionary Council). On 4 December 1976, at the MESAN congress, Bokassa instituted a new constitution and declared the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic republic] a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy monarchy], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_African_Empire Central African Empire]. The following year, he issued an imperial [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution constitution], announced his conversion back to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church Catholicism] and had himself crowned "S.M.I. Bokassa 1<sup>er</sup> ", with S.M.I. standing for ''Sa Majesté Impériale'': "His Imperial Majesty", in a formal coronation ceremony on 4 December 1977. Bokassa's full title was ''Empereur de Centrafrique par la volonté du peuple Centrafricain, uni au sein du parti politique national, le [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MESAN MESAN]'' ("Emperor of Central Africa by the will of the Central African people, united within the national political party, the MESAN"). His [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regalia regalia], lavish [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronation coronation] ceremony and regime of the newly formed Central African Empire were largely inspired by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France Napoleon I], who had converted the French Revolutionary Republic of which he was First Consul into the First French Empire. The coronation ceremony was estimated to cost his country roughly 20 million US dollars. | In September 1976, Bokassa dissolved the government and replaced it with the ''Conseil de la Révolution Centrafricaine'' (Central African Revolutionary Council). On 4 December 1976, at the MESAN congress, Bokassa instituted a new constitution and declared the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic republic] a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy monarchy], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_African_Empire Central African Empire]. The following year, he issued an imperial [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution constitution], announced his conversion back to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church Catholicism] and had himself crowned "S.M.I. Bokassa 1<sup>er</sup> ", with S.M.I. standing for ''Sa Majesté Impériale'': "His Imperial Majesty", in a formal coronation ceremony on 4 December 1977. Bokassa's full title was ''Empereur de Centrafrique par la volonté du peuple Centrafricain, uni au sein du parti politique national, le [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MESAN MESAN]'' ("Emperor of Central Africa by the will of the Central African people, united within the national political party, the MESAN"). His [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regalia regalia], lavish [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronation coronation] ceremony and regime of the newly formed Central African Empire were largely inspired by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France Napoleon I], who had converted the French Revolutionary Republic of which he was First Consul into the First French Empire. The coronation ceremony was estimated to cost his country roughly 20 million US dollars. Bokassa attempted to justify his actions by claiming that creating a monarchy would help Central Africa "stand out" from the rest of the continent, and earn the world's respect. The 1977 coronation ceremony consumed one third of the CAE's (Central African Empire) annual budget and all of France's aid money for that year, but despite generous invitations, no foreign leaders attended the event. By this time, many people in the CAE and in the rest of the world thought Bokassa was insane, and the Western press, mostly in France, the UK, and USA, often compared his eccentric behavior and egotistical extravagance with that of Africa's other well-known eccentric dictator, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idi_Amin Idi Amin] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda Uganda]. Tenacious rumors that he occasionally [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannibalism consumed human flesh] were found unproven during his eventual trial. | ||
Although Bokassa claimed that the new empire would be a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy constitutional monarchy], no significant democratic reforms were made, and suppression of dissenters remained widespread. Torture was said to be especially rampant, with allegations that even Bokassa himself occasionally participated in beatings and executions. | Although Bokassa claimed that the new empire would be a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy constitutional monarchy], no significant democratic reforms were made, and suppression of dissenters remained widespread. Torture was said to be especially rampant, with allegations that even Bokassa himself occasionally participated in beatings and executions. | ||
==Overthrow== | ==Overthrow== | ||
===Repression=== | ===Repression=== | ||
By January 1979, French support for Bokassa had all but eroded after food riots in Bangui led to a massacre of civilians. | By January 1979, French support for Bokassa had all but eroded after food riots in Bangui led to a massacre of civilians. But the final straw came when between 17 April and 19 April, a large number of elementary school students in Bangui and elsewhere in the country were arrested after they had protested against paying for and wearing the expensive, government-required [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_uniform school uniforms] with Bokassa's image on them. Around 100 children were killed.<span style="line-height:0px;"> </span>Bokassa allegedly participated in the massacre, beating some of the children to death with his cane; however, the initial reports received by Amnesty International indicated only that the 100 or more school students who died actually suffocated or were beaten to death while being forced into a small jail cell following their arrest. | ||
The massive worldwide press coverage which followed the deaths of the students opened the way for a successful coup which saw French troops (in "Opération Barracuda") invade the Central African Empire and restored former president David Dacko to power while Bokassa fled into exile by airplane to the Ivory Coast ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire Côte d'Ivoire]) on 20 September 1979. | The massive worldwide press coverage which followed the deaths of the students opened the way for a successful coup which saw French troops (in "Opération Barracuda") invade the Central African Empire and restored former president David Dacko to power while Bokassa fled into exile by airplane to the Ivory Coast ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire Côte d'Ivoire]) on 20 September 1979. | ||
===Operation Barracuda=== | ===Operation Barracuda=== | ||
Bokassa's overthrow by the French government was called "France's last colonial expedition" (''"la dernière expédition coloniale française"'') by veteran French diplomat [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Foccart Jacques Foccart]. ''Operation Barracuda'' began on the evening of 20 September and ended early the next morning. An undercover commando squad from the French intelligence agency [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDECE SDECE] (now [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DGSE DGSE]), joined by Special Forces' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Marine_Infantry_Parachute_Regiment 1st Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment], or ''1<sup>er</sup> RPIMa'', led by Colonel Brancion-Rouge, landed by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transall Transall] and managed to secure the Bangui M'Poko airport with little resistance. Upon arrival of two more French military transport aircraft, containing over 300 French troops, a message was sent by Colonel Brancion-Rouge to Colonel Degenne to come in with his ''Barracudas'' (codename for eight [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Puma Puma helicopters] and Transall aircraft), which took off from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%27Djamena N'Djamena] military airport in neighbouring [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad Chad]. | Bokassa's overthrow by the French government was called "France's last colonial expedition" (''"la dernière expédition coloniale française"'') by veteran French diplomat [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Foccart Jacques Foccart]. ''Operation Barracuda'' began on the evening of 20 September and ended early the next morning. An undercover commando squad from the French intelligence agency [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDECE SDECE] (now [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DGSE DGSE]), joined by Special Forces' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Marine_Infantry_Parachute_Regiment 1st Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment], or ''1<sup>er</sup> RPIMa'', led by Colonel Brancion-Rouge, landed by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transall Transall] and managed to secure the Bangui M'Poko airport with little resistance. Upon arrival of two more French military transport aircraft, containing over 300 French troops, a message was sent by Colonel Brancion-Rouge to Colonel Degenne to come in with his ''Barracudas'' (codename for eight [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Puma Puma helicopters] and Transall aircraft), which took off from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%27Djamena N'Djamena] military airport in neighbouring [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad Chad]. | ||
===Fall of the empire=== | ===Fall of the empire=== | ||
By 12:30 p.m. on 21 September, the pro-French Dacko proclaimed the fall of the Central African Empire and the restoration of the Central African Republic under his presidency. David Dacko remained president until he was overthrown on 1 September 1981 by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Kolingba André Kolingba]. Bokassa, who was visiting Libya on a state visit at the time, fled to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire Côte d'Ivoire] (Ivory Coast) where he spent four years living in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abidjan Abidjan]. He then moved to France where he was allowed to settle in his Chateau d'[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardricourt Hardricourt] in the suburb of Paris. France gave him political asylum because of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Foreign_Legion French Foreign Legion] obligations. | By 12:30 p.m. on 21 September, the pro-French Dacko proclaimed the fall of the Central African Empire and the restoration of the Central African Republic under his presidency. David Dacko remained president until he was overthrown on 1 September 1981 by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Kolingba André Kolingba]. Bokassa, who was visiting Libya on a state visit at the time, fled to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire Côte d'Ivoire] (Ivory Coast) where he spent four years living in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abidjan Abidjan]. He then moved to France where he was allowed to settle in his Chateau d'[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardricourt Hardricourt] in the suburb of Paris. France gave him political asylum because of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Foreign_Legion French Foreign Legion] obligations. | ||
During Bokassa's seven-year of exile, he wrote his memoirs after complaining that his French military pension was insufficient. But the French courts ordered that all 8,000 copies of the book be confiscated and destroyed after his publisher claimed that Bokassa said that he shared women with President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, who has been a frequent guest in the Central African Republic. Bokassa also claimed to have given Giscard a gift of diamonds worth around a quarter of a million dollars in 1973 while the French president was serving as finance minister. Giscard's next presidential reelection campaign failed in the wake of the scandal. Bokassa's presence in France proved embarrassing to many government ministers who supported him during his entire rule. | During Bokassa's seven-year of exile, he wrote his memoirs after complaining that his French military pension was insufficient. But the French courts ordered that all 8,000 copies of the book be confiscated and destroyed after his publisher claimed that Bokassa said that he shared women with President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, who has been a frequent guest in the Central African Republic. Bokassa also claimed to have given Giscard a gift of diamonds worth around a quarter of a million dollars in 1973 while the French president was serving as finance minister. Giscard's next presidential reelection campaign failed in the wake of the scandal. Bokassa's presence in France proved embarrassing to many government ministers who supported him during his entire rule. | ||
==Trial and death== | ==Trial and death== | ||
Bokassa had been sentenced to death ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_absentia in absentia]'' in December 1980 for the murder of numerous political rivals. | Bokassa had been sentenced to death ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_absentia in absentia]'' in December 1980 for the murder of numerous political rivals. However, he returned from exile in France on 24 October 1986. Bokassa was immediately arrested by the Central African authorities as soon as he stepped off the plane and was tried for 14 different charges, including [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treason treason], murder, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannibalism cannibalism], illegal use of property, assault and battery, and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embezzlement embezzlement]. Now that Bokassa was unexpectedly in the hands of the Central African Republic government, they were required by law to try him in person, granting him the benefit of defence counsel. | ||
The trial began on 15 December 1986, taking place in the hot and humid, non-air conditioned chambers of the ''Palais de Justice'' in Bangui. Bokassa hired two French lawyers, François Gilbault and Francis Szpiner, which faced a panel composed of six jurors and three judges, presided over by High Court Judge Edouard Franck, which was modelled after the legal system in France itself. A fair jury trial of a former head of state was unprecedented in the history of post-colonial Africa where previous dictators had been tried and executed after show trials. New, too, was public access to the trial which the courtroom was constantly filled with standing-room-only spectators as well as live French-language broadcasts by Radio Bangui and local TV news crews which was broadcast all over the country, as well as neighbouring French-speaking African countries. The trial was listened to and watched by all those in the Central African Republic and in neighbouring countries by those who had access to any type of radio or TV set. | The trial began on 15 December 1986, taking place in the hot and humid, non-air conditioned chambers of the ''Palais de Justice'' in Bangui. Bokassa hired two French lawyers, François Gilbault and Francis Szpiner, which faced a panel composed of six jurors and three judges, presided over by High Court Judge Edouard Franck, which was modelled after the legal system in France itself. A fair jury trial of a former head of state was unprecedented in the history of post-colonial Africa where previous dictators had been tried and executed after show trials. New, too, was public access to the trial which the courtroom was constantly filled with standing-room-only spectators as well as live French-language broadcasts by Radio Bangui and local TV news crews which was broadcast all over the country, as well as neighbouring French-speaking African countries. The trial was listened to and watched by all those in the Central African Republic and in neighbouring countries by those who had access to any type of radio or TV set. | ||
The prosecutor was Gabriel-Faustin M'Boudou, the Chief Prosecutor of the CAR, who called various witnesses to testify against Bokassa, which included remembering victims ranging from political enemies to a newborn son of a palace guard commander who had been executed for attempting to kill Bokassa in 1978 when he was the self-proclaimed emperor. A hospital nurse testified that Bokassa was said to have killed the delivered child with an injection of poison. | The prosecutor was Gabriel-Faustin M'Boudou, the Chief Prosecutor of the CAR, who called various witnesses to testify against Bokassa, which included remembering victims ranging from political enemies to a newborn son of a palace guard commander who had been executed for attempting to kill Bokassa in 1978 when he was the self-proclaimed emperor. A hospital nurse testified that Bokassa was said to have killed the delivered child with an injection of poison. | ||